Mike Christie’s Papers Professor of Environmental and Ecological Economics School of Management and Business, Aberystwyth University Details of my published papers (including abstracts and a link to the full text) can be found below.

Paper	Abstract	Link
2012
Christie M, Fazey I, Cooper R, Hyde H and Kenter JO. (2012) An Evaluation of Monetary and Non-monetary Techniques for Assessing the Importance of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services to People in countries with developing economies. Ecological Economics, 83, 69-80.	Biodiversity supports a range of ecosystems services that are of fundamental importance to people in poor countries. Economic valuation of biodiversity is important for the development of policies that protect biodiversity and alleviate poverty. This paper provides an evaluation of monetary and non-monetary techniques for assessing the value of biodiversity to people in least developed countries (LDCs). Specifically, research questions include: 1) To what extent have monetary and non-monetary techniques been used to assess the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in LDCs? 2) What are the key methodological, practical, epistemological and policy challenges to assessing the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in LDCs? 1. How can valuation methods be improved to allow more accurate valuation in LDCs? Our results show that: · There is currently a paucity of biodiversity valuation studies in LDCs. · Conventional approaches to valuation are often inappropriate for use in LDCs. · Incorporating ideas from participatory, deliberative and action research methods into valuation techniques can make them more suitable for use in LDCs. · There is a need to build capacity within the academic and policy-making communities in LDCs, to ensure that the benefits of biodiversity are properly accounted for in policy decisions. ·
de Groot RS, Brander L, van der Ploeg S, Costanza R, Bernard F, Braat L, Christie M, Crossman N, Ghermandi A, and Hein L, Kumar, P, McVittie, A, Portela, R, Rodriguez, L C, ten Brink, P, and van Beukering, P (2012). Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosystem Services. 1 (1), 50 – 61.	This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the value of ecosystem services provided by 10 main biomes based on data from local case studies worldwide, expressed in monetary units. In total, over 320 publications were screened covering over 300 case study locations. Approximately 1350 value estimates were coded and stored in a searchable Ecosystem Service Value Database (ESVD). A selection of 665 value estimates were used for the analysis of the methods, locations, ecosystem services, and ranges of values presented in this paper. Acknowledging the uncertainties and contextual nature of any valuation, the analysis shows that the total Value Estimated in Monetary units (VEM) of ecosystem services is considerable and ranges between 490 int$/year for the total bundle of ecosystem services that can be provided by an ‘average’ hectare of open oceans to almost 350,000 int$/year for the potential services of an ‘average’ hectare of coral reefs. More importantly, our results show that most of this value is outside the market and best considered as non-tradable public benefits. The continued over-exploitation of ecosystems thus comes at the expense of the livelihood of the poor, and future generations. Given that many of the positive externalities of ecosystems are lost or strongly reduced after land use conversion better accounting for the public goods and services provided by ecosystems is crucial to improved decision making and better management, and new institutions are required for better management.
Christie M and Rayment M (2012). An economic assessment of the ecosystem service benefits derived from the SSSI biodiversity conservation policy in England and Wales. Ecosystem Services 1, 70 – 84.	Despite significant conservation efforts, global biodiversity continues to decline. A key contributing factor has been a failure to fully recognise the range of 'ecosystem service' benefits provided by biodiversity. In this paper, we use a case study relating to Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in England and Wales to demonstrate the potential ecosystem service benefits that can be derived from biodiversity conservation policies. Our approach involved three stages. (1) a choice experiment to assess the economic value of ecosystem services delivered by SSSI sites; (2) a 'weighting matrix' to (a) assign ecosystem services to the different SSSI habitats and (b) identify the contribution that conservation management on SSSIs has on the delivery of these services; (3) estimation of the aggregated economic value of ecosystem services directly attributable to conservation management on SSSI sites. The public are willing to pay £956m annually to secure the levels of services and benefits currently delivered by SSSI conservation activities, and a further £769 million to secure the benefits that would be delivered if SSSIs were all in favourable condition. These benefit estimates significantly exceed the annual £111 million costs of managing SSSIs, demonstrating that investing in biodiversity conservation can be cost effective.
Schader C, Lampkin N, Christie M, Nemecek T, Gailard G and Stolze M (2012) Evaluation of cost-effectiveness of organic farming support as an agri-environmental measure at Swiss agricultural sector level. Land Use Policy. (In Press)	The economic efficiency of financial support of organic farming has been questioned by economists and policy makers. However, little empirical research has been done in order to evaluate the economic performance of these payments. Thus, the aim of this paper is to calculate the cost effectiveness of organic farming support in achieving environmental policy targets compared to other agri-environmental measures. The cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental measures can be understood as a function of policy uptake, environmental effects, and public expenditure. Taking the Swiss agricultural sector as an empirical case study, cost-effectiveness of organic farming support and other single agri environmental measures was calculated. For this purpose, the sector-representative PMP model FARMIS was extended by three modules encompassing a) life cycle assessments for fossil energy use, biodiversity and eutrophication according to the SALCA methodology, b) public expenditure, including policy-related transaction costs, and c) uptake of agri-environmental measures. The calculations revealed a slightly higher policy cost with organic farming support of 14 CHF/ha for a 1 % average improvement in the environmental indicators, compared to a combination of three single agri-environmental measures (11 CHF/ha), including both extensification of arable land and meadows. In view of an average public expenditure on agriculture of 2.5 kCHF per ha in Switzerland, these differences can be considered as marginal. Sensitivity analyses confirm that the cost-effectiveness of organic farming support is very similar to combined agri-environmental measures. Furthermore, the model reveals that the cost-effectiveness of specific agri-environmental measures is higher when implemented on organic farms rather than on non-organic farms.	Not yet available
2011
Whitfield, S.; Reed, M.S.; Thomson, K.; Christie, M.; Stringer, L.C.; Quinn, C.H.; Anderson, R.; Moxey, A.; Hubacek, K. (2011). Managing Peatland Ecosystem Services: Current UK policy and future challenges in a changing world. Scottish Geographical Journal. 127, 209-230.	Sustainable peatland management has recently risen up the UK political agenda as links between peatland ecosystem services and key political priorities, such as rural livelihoods, agricultural production, biodiversity conservation, and carbon emissions, have become established. By adopting an ecosystem approach, something that has become internationally advocated through the Convention on Biological Diversity, to understanding the objectives and sustainability of UK peatland management, this paper reviews contemporary policies relating to three broad categories of peatland ecosystem service (provisioning; regulating and cultural), developed at multiple levels (global to local). We highlight problems associated with incomplete knowledge about complex peatland ecosystem processes and disconnected policies and strategies. The review concludes by discussing the kinds of integrated land use policies that are beginning to emerge in the UK and may shape future peatland management.
Christie M and Gibbons J. (2011) The effect of individual ‘ability to choose’ (scale heterogeneity) on the valuation of environmental goods. Ecological Economics. 70. 2250-2257.	Environmental valuation methods, such as choice experiments, are increasingly being used to value complex and often unfamiliar environmental goods. A potential risk is that some survey respondents may not be capable of developing and expressing preferences for such goods. The noise from these individuals may then conceal the well-defined preferences of other respondents and affect valuation estimates. We address this problem by estimating a range of models that accounts for scale heterogeneity (which we interpret as a respondent's ability to choose: ATC) and taste heterogeneity. These models are applied to two case studies: amenity from coastal defence and biodiversity. In both case studies, model fit was improved in a scale-heterogeneity multinomial-logit (S-MNL) model (compared to a standard MNL model) suggesting the accounting for ATC (scale heterogeneity) improved preference revelation. A mixed multinomial-logit (MIXL) model outperformed the S-MNL model suggesting that accounting for taste heterogeneity was also important. However, a generalised multinomial-logit (G-MNL) model improved model fit over the MIXL model only for the biodiversity data suggesting that for these data both taste heterogeneity and ATC were important. We conclude that accounting for ATC can improve the reliability and robustness of the results when valuing complex or unfamiliar environmental goods.
Conrad, Cassar, Jones, Eiter, Izakovicova, Barankova, Christie and Fazey (2011) Rhetoric and Reporting of Public Participation in Landscape Policy. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning. 13(1), 23 – 47.	The involvement of the public in decision-making is established as a key feature of many planning policies. However, there is evidence from the literature of a prevailing gap between participation rhetoric on paper and participation at the operational level. We assess whether this is also the case with landscape policy and review landscape characterization and assessment initiatives in England, Norway, Slovakia and Malta, focusing on five dimensions of good practice: (i) scope of public participation, (ii) representativeness of those involved, (iii) timeliness of public involvement, (iv) extent to which participation is rendered comfortable and convenient for the public, and (v) eventual influence of public input on decisions. Reviewed reporting results indicate weaknesses in the implementation of public participation, with public involvement largely limited to consultation, with few efforts to ensure representativeness of participants, with predominantly late involvement of the public, and with limited influence of the public on outputs. Furthermore, few efforts appear to be made to facilitate participation for the public. Although the cases studied differ, none of them are fully satisfactory in relation to the European Landscape Convention's participatory targets. The reporting of public participation processes thus suggests that practices may fail to match the rhetoric.
Conrad L, Cassar LF, Christie M and Fazey I (2011). Hearing but not listening? A participatory assessment of public participation in planning. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy. 29 (5), 761-782. (Paper selected as ‘Editors Choice’)	Whilst public participation is now accepted as an essential requirement of planning, there is limited literature which considers the effectiveness of participation in practice. In this study we focus on the perspectives of members of the public, and planners and policy makers in the island state of Malta, to identify (i) expectations of the participation process, (ii) the extent to which practices meet expectations, and (iii) ways in which participation practices could be rendered more effective. Five key areas of concern emerge: (a) lack of influence on decisions, (b) lack of professional ethics and expertise, (c) methods and techniques used, (d) the nature of information provision, and (e) local cultural influences. Results illustrate the inadequacy of present legal requirements for ensuring effective participation, and a related need for institutionalizing review mechanisms. Results also reveal tension between positivist views of planning as an expert discipline, and public expectations of democracy. Furthermore, the study provides wider insights into processes of assessment and evaluation.
Conrad L, Fazey I and Christie M (2011) Is research keeping up with changes in landscape policy? A review of the literature. Journal of Environmental Management. 92 (9), 2097-2108.	Several innovative directions for landscape policy development and implementation have emerged over recent years. These include: (i) an expansion of scope to include all landscape aspects and landscape types, (ii) an increased emphasis on public participation, (iii) a focus on designing measures appropriate for different contexts and scales, and (iv) encouraging support for capacity-building. In this paper, we evaluate the extent to which these policy directions are reflected in the practice of academic landscape research. We evaluate all research papers published in three leading landscape journals over six years, as well as published research papers relating directly to the European Landscape Convention. The latter, which was adopted in 2000, establishes a framework for landscape protection, planning and management in Europe and is to date the only international legal instrument of its kind. Results indicate that whilst policy innovations do not appear to be a major stimulus for academic research, studies nevertheless address a range of landscape aspects, types and scales (albeit with a slight bias towards bio-physical landscape aspects). However, geographical representativeness of research is weak and dominated by the United States and northern/western Europe, and research capacity likewise appears to be unevenly distributed. Landscape research is also limited in the extent to which it involves stakeholders or develops innovative methods for doing so, notwithstanding that this remains a key challenge for policy-makers. Results point to the potential for landscape research to address areas (topical and geographical) which have received little attention to date, as well as suggesting mutual benefits of stronger links between policy and academia.
Kenter J, Hyde T, Christie M and Fazey I (2011). The importance of deliberation in valuing ecosystem services in developing countries – evidence from the Solomon Islands. Global Environmental Change Human and Policy Dimensions, 21(2), 505-521.	Monetary valuation of ecosystem services enables more accurate accounting of the environmental costs and benefits of policies, but this has rarely been applied in developing countries. In such contexts, there are particular methodological and epistemological challenges that require novel valuation methodologies. This paper introduces a new participatory, deliberative choice experiment approach conducted in the Solomon Islands. The research aimed to determine the value people placed on ecosystem services and whether participatory interventions to elicit deeper held values influenced the preferences expressed. Results found that the initial willingness to pay for a number of tropical forest ecosystem services amounted to 30% of household income. Following deliberative intervention exercises, key ecosystem services effectively became priceless as participants were unwilling to trade them off in the choice experiment scenarios, regardless of financial cost. The group based deliberative approach, combined with participatory interventions, also resulted in significant learning for participants. This included a more sophisticated view of ecological-cultural linkages, greater recognition of deeper held values, and greater awareness of the consequences of human actions for the environment. The use of a group-based participatory approach instead of a conventional individual survey helped to overcome many of the practical difficulties associated with valuation in developing countries. Given the impact of learning on valuation outcomes, participation and deliberation should be integrated into valuation of any complex good, both in developing and developed economies. However, such a methodology raises questions about how valuation can deal with unwillingness to trade-off key ecosystem services, which results in the breakdown of monetary valuation methods. Evaluation of the appropriateness of valuation processes and methodologies for assessing deeper held values and use of mixed-method approaches will be essential to ensure policies take into account the extent to which human life is dependent on ecosystem services.
Conrad, L, Christie, M, and Fazey, I (2011). Understanding public perceptions of landscape: A case study from Gozo Malta. Applied Geography. 31, 159 - 170	The European Landscape Convention (ELC) establishes public participation as both an instrumental and substantive goal. Indeed, the ELC defines the very notion of landscape as “an area as perceived by people…”. There is thus an important role to be played by perception research in determining how the ELC can best be implemented in practical terms. The present paper aims to assess how an understanding of public perception can usefully inform local implementation of the European Landscape Convention. To address this aim, we use a case study on the island of Gozo (Malta). An Internet survey mechanism was used to identify public views on the concept of landscape and aspects of landscape character and change. Results were evaluated with reference to (i) coherence between the ELC and public views, and (ii) local capacity to participate in decision-making. Findings indicate that the notion of ‘landscape’ in public understanding does not fully reflect the concept and scope of the ELC. However, substantial knowledge of, and interest in, landscape matters was apparent amongst the public, and there was also significant consensus across different respondent groups. The study highlighted key areas of concern for implementation of the ELC, including the need for improved communication between policy-makers and the public and the need to address the perceived ineffectiveness of public participation mechanisms.
2010
Fazey, I, Kesby, M, Evely, A, Latham, I, Wagatora, D, Hagasua, J-E, Reed, M, S, Christie, M (2010). A three-tiered approach to participatory vulnerability assessment in the Solomon Islands. Global Environmental Change. 20, 713-728.	Greater recognition of the seriousness of global environmental change has led to an increase in research that assesses the vulnerability of households, communities and regions to changing environmental or economic conditions. So far, however, there has been relatively little attention given to how assessments can be conducted in ways that help build capacity for local communities to understand and find their own solutions to their problems. This paper reports on an approach that was designed and used to work with a local grass roots organization in the Solomon Islands to promote inclusivity and participation in decision-making and to build the capacity of the organization to reduce the vulnerability of communities to drivers of change. The process involved working collaboratively with the organization and training its members to conduct vulnerability assessments with communities using participatory and deliberative methods. To make best use of the learning opportunities provided by the research process, specific periods for formal reflection were incorporated for the three key stakeholders involved: the primary researchers; research assistants; and community members. Overall, the approach: (1) promoted learning about the current situation in Kahua and encouraged deeper analysis of problems; (2) built capacity for communities to manage the challenges they were facing; and (3) fostered local ownership and responsibility for problems and set precedents for future participation in decision-making. While the local organization and the communities it serves still face significant challenges, the research approach set the scene for greater local participation and effort to maintain and enhance livelihoods and wellbeing. The outcomes highlight the need for greater emphasis on embedding participatory approaches in vulnerability assessments for communities to benefit fully from the process.
Fazey, I, Gamarra, JGPJ, Fischer, J, Reed, MS, Stringer, LC, Christie, M (2010) Adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerability to future environmental change. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 8 (8) 414-422.	Many adaptation strategies focus on improving short-term capacities to cope with environmental change, but ignore the possibility that they might inadvertently increase vulnerability to unforeseen changes in the future. To help develop more effective long-term strategies, we present a conceptual framework of adaptation. The framework emphasizes that in order to ensure that existing problems are not exacerbated, adaptation must: (1) address both human-induced and biophysical drivers of undesired ecological change; (2) maintain a diversity of future response options; and (3) nurture the kinds of human capacities that enable the uptake of those response options. These requirements are often not met when adaptation strategies rely on technological fixes, which tend to concentrate on coping with the biophysical symptoms of problems rather than addressing human behavioral causes. Furthermore, to develop effective, long-term adaptation, greater emphasis is needed on strategies that enhance, rather than erode, the human values, skills, and behaviors conducive to sustainable activities. Participatory approaches to environmental stewardship are part of the solution to this problem.
Older
Christie M and Azevedo C (2009). Testing the Consistency Between Standard Contingent Valuation, Repeated Contingent Valuation, and Choice Experiments. Journal of Agricultural Economics 60(1), 154-170.	Choice experiments (CEs) are a relatively new approach to valuing environmental resources. Initial tests of the validity of the approach have either compared benefit estimates generated using CEs with those estimated using contingent valuation (CV) or used more sophisticated hypothesis tests of parameter equality. Although useful, existing tests have been restricted to testing consistency based on a single policy scenario (standard CV). We argue that, although these tests are informative, they fail to take full advantage of the richness of CE data. In particular, CE data allow for the calculation of benefit estimates over a range of policy scenarios (i.e. attribute combinations). A similar range of benefit estimates may be generated by pooling scenarios in a repeated CV study. In this paper, we explore this relationship between CV and CEs by conducting validity tests between a CE model and a repeated CV model over a range of three levels of improved water quality at Clear Lake, IA, USA. Evidence from this test suggests that the CE and CV data are consistent.
Christie M, Hanley, N and Hynes S. (2007). Valuing enhancements to forest recreation using choice experiments and contingent behaviour methods. Journal of Forest Economics. 13(2), 75-102.	This research utilises two valuation techniques (a frequency-based choice experiment model and a contingent behaviour model) to value a range of improvements to recreational facilities in forest and woodlands in Great Britain. We provide the first comparison in the literature of welfare results from these two approaches. Four groups of forest users are targeted in this research: cyclists, horse riders, nature watchers and general forest visitors, and look also at “sub-groupings” within these classes of forest user. We found that heterogeneity of preferences exists within each of these groups. In particular, more specialist forest user groups attain generally higher values for improvements than general users. For example, downhill mountain bikers were willing to pay more for the provision of dedicated downhill courses than family cyclists for easy cycle trails. It is also argued that the use of a frequency-based choice task in the choice experiment has advantages over the more traditional choice tasks for applications such as forest recreation since a frequency-based task better reflects actual behaviour and encourages respondents to pay closer attention to the “distance travelled” attribute.
Christie M (2007) An examination of the disparity between hypothetical and actual willingness to pay for Red Kite conservation using the contingent valuation method. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics 55, 159-169.	This paper reports the findings of a field experiment that explores the criterion validity of the contingent valuation (CV) method. The empirical experiment examined the disparity between hypothetical and actual willingness to pay (WTP) bids for Red Kite conservation in Wales. Hypothetical WTP was elicited using an open-ended CV instrument, while the actual WTP value was determined from actual donations to the Welsh Kite Trust—a charity set up to aid the conservation of Red Kites in Wales. The survey results indicate that hypothetical WTP was three times greater than the mean value of actual donations; this finding is consistent with a number of other criterion validity experiments. However, we also demonstrate equality of hypothetical and actual WTP among those who actually express a payment amount. Further investigations identify that an underlying cause of this disparity stems from the respondents of the CV survey overstating their intention of pay. This observation has potentially significant implication for CV design in that it suggests that the emphasis in design should be placed much more fully on initially determining whether people would actually pay at all.
Christie M, Hanley, N, Warren, J, Murphy K, Wright R and Hyde T. (2006) Valuing the diversity of biodiversity Ecological Economics. 58(2), 304-317.	Policy makers have responded to concerns over declining levels of biodiversity by introducing a range of policy measures including agri-environment and wildlife management schemes. Costs for such measures are relatively easy to establish, but benefits are less easily estimated. Economics can help guide the design of biodiversity policy by eliciting public preferences on different attributes of biodiversity. However, this is complicated by the generally low level of awareness and understanding of what biodiversity means on the part of the general public. In this paper we report research that applied the choice experiment and contingent valuation methods to value the diversity of biological diversity. Focus groups were used to identify ecological concepts of biodiversity that were important and relevant to the public, and to discover how best to describe these concepts in a meaningful and understandable manner. A choice experiment examined a range of biodiversity attributes including familiarity of species, species rarity, habitat, and ecosystem processes, while a contingent valuation study examined public willingness to pay for biodiversity enhancements associated with agri-environmental and habitat re-creation policy. The key conclusions drawn from the valuation studies were that the public has positive valuation preferences for most, but not all, aspects of biodiversity, but that they appeared to be largely indifferent to how biodiversity protection was achieved. Finally, we also investigate the extent to which valuation workshop approaches to data collection can overcome some of the possible information problems associated with the valuation of complex goods. The key conclusion was that the additional opportunities for information exchange and group discussion in the workshops helped to reduce the variability of value estimates.
Scott A, Christie M, and Midmore P. (2004) Impact of the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in Britain: implications for rural studies. Journal of Rural Studies 20(1), 1 – 14.	This paper assesses the impact of the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in terms of its implications for the discipline of rural studies. In particular, it focuses on the position of agriculture in rural economy and society, the standing of the government after its management of the outbreak, and the performance of the new devolved regional tiers of government. After a brief review of the history and aggregate impact of the outbreak, the general themes of the paper are explored from a range of Welsh case-study evidence, showing the impact on farm structures and the environment, rural communities and their social life. The major conclusions are that the unanticipated magnitude of effect of the outbreak should direct more attention to the nature of the space shared as a public good by agriculture and rural tourism; that the loss of trust in administrations as a result of the specific management of the outbreak reveals scope for new approaches in the study of governance and partnership at a rural level; and the opportunity for the devolved administrations to emphasise a difference in perspective, on both the outbreak and rural issues in general, highlights potentially widening fault-lines in the constitutional reform process, especially as discussion over the future of European rural policies proceed.
Scott A, Christie M, and Tench H. (2003) Visitor payback: Panacea or Pandora’s box for conservation in the UK? Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 46(4), 583-604.	This paper assesses the efficacy and relevance of visitor payback as a tool for recreation management in the UK. Visitor payback is essentially a voluntary payment made by visitors towards conservation, differing significantly from the compulsory tourist or bed tax practised in other countries. Attention has recently focused on this technique as a means to supplement the limited funds available for conservation work. However, whilst there are several schemes operating in the UK, there is a dearth of published research that has critically reviewed the concept and operationalization of visitor payback. The research reported here utilizes primary and secondary data to include case studies, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. The findings reveal that visitor payback is a complex concept to evaluate, both in theory and practice, involving a range of benefits and disbenefits. Financial benefits appear less prevalent than the more esoteric ‘feel good’ factor, increased awareness about conservation and partnerships that are evident in payback schemes. Support for visitor payback varies considerably with visitors strongly receptive, whilst the tourism business interests are more cautious. It is concluded that visitor payback needs to be re-conceptualized in more positive terms as a ‘visitor investment scheme’ where conservation takes precedence over financial considerations. Further research is required to try and demystify the tourism business resistance to visitor payback as its potential seems somewhat constrained in the present climate.
Christie M (2001). A comparison of alternative contingent valuation elicitation treatments for the evaluation of complex environmental policy. Journal of Environmental Management. 62(3), 255-269.	Attempts to evaluate the economic benefits associated with complex environmental policies, using the contingent valuation (CV) method, have been dogged by controversy. In particular, debate has centred on the influence of embedding and related effects on the validity of CV willingness-to-pay (WTP) estimates. This paper discusses these effects in the context of identifying the most appropriate WTP elicitation treatment to evaluate the willingness to pay for the various elements of a multi-dimensional environmental policy. The findings of an empirical experiment demonstrate that a top-down allocation treatment, which uses independent sub-samples for individual policy components, provides the most reliable treatment to value all aspects of a multi-dimensional policy, whilst also overcoming embedding bias problems.
Christie M, Crabtree B and Slee B (2000) An economic assessment of recreation policy in the Scottish countryside. Scottish Geographical Journal 116(2), 125-142.	Countryside recreation policy in Scotland is currently delivered through numerous ad hoc arrangements. This paper assesses the economic effectiveness of these arrangements using cost‐benefit analysis. The benefits associated with recreation enhancements are measured using the contingent valuation method, while the costs are assessed through a survey of public and voluntary section expenditure on informal recreation. The analysis demonstrates that recreation policies are generally economically efficient in that they target enhancement programmes that are shown to generate high economic benefits. The exception to this is related to investments in visitor centres. The paper concludes that the cost‐benefit methodology adopted in this research can provide useful information for the strategic analysis of countryside recreation policy.
Christie M (1999). Designing strategic recreation policy using contingent valuation. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 42(4), 547-564.	Arrangements within the UK to enhance recreation opportunities in the countryside are currently implemented in a somewhat ad hoc manner. This paper analyses the economic effectiveness of such provision in Grampian Region, Scotland. This is achieved by quantifying, using the contingent valuation method, the economic benefits accruing from recreation enhancements and comparing these benefits with the level of expenditure currently being undertaken on these improvements. The subsequent analysis provides a strategic framework for the assessment of recreation needs in the region, thus enabling future priorities for provision to be identified. It is argued that the quantification of public preferences for recreation enhancements provides a powerful tool to aid strategic planning of recreation provision. The issue of using public funds to finance recreation facilities in the countryside is also discussed.